The authors gratefully acknowledge the following for their aid: ziva galili, rutgers university department of history mark wasserman, rutgers university department of history professor kurt spellmeyer and the rutgers writing center program professor scott waugh and the ucla department of history for their guide to writing historical essays professors ronald r. Gopen at duke university for their guidelines for the use of students submitting papers for university writing courses and other classes in trinity college of arts and sciences and the school of engineering durham, north carolina: duke university department of english, 1992. The purpose of this guide is to provide you with the basics for writing undergraduate history essays and papers. It is a guide only, and its step by step approach is only one possible model it does not replace consultation with your professor, ta, or instructor about writing questions and getting feedback, nor the excellent tutoring services provided by the rutgers writing center program room 304, murray hall, college avenue campus and the douglass writing center room 101, speech and hearing building, douglass campus.

All serious writing is done in drafts with many hesitations, revisions, and new inspirations. Remember always that there is nothing natural about being able to write we all have to be taught over many years , and writing well is a matter of application, discipline, and effort. Just remember that our subject here critical, scholarly writing has special requirements. In what follows we will briefly discuss the nature of historical writing, lay out a step by step model for constructing an essay, and provide a set of useful observations from our experience as instructors regarding problems that most frequently crop up in student writing.

While many people have never heard of the early cultures of the andean region, like the chavin, moche, tiwanaku, wari. And chimu, that existed before the inca empire, most people know something about the incas. That is at least partly because when the spanish arrived in south america in the early 1530s, they found one wealthy and powerful empire, rather than many small states descending from the earlier cultures. In a mere ninety five years between 1438 and 1533, the incas spread their empire over almost 3,0 miles 4,827 kilometers of western south america, unifying the highly diverse populations in the vast region under their control. In truth, the incas were not the originators of many of the aspects of civilization for which they are often credited. Before the inca empire was built, great innovations in farming, art, architecture, and social organization were already in place throughout the andes.

The inca government excelled at organizing all the various cultures and economies it had brought together. The incorporation of many diverse peoples into a unified system was probably the crowning accomplishment of the incas. By the time of the spanish conquest in 1533, tawantinsuyu the inca empire included a vast part of the andean region between the mountains and the pacific coast as well as some areas farther inland.

The incas controlled all of present day peru, most of present day ecuador and bolivia, and northern parts of what is now chile and argentina. The incas separated their empire into four suyus, or quarters, that radiated from cuzco, their capital city. East of cuzco was antisuyu, which extended through the andes to the tropical jungles in the amazon basin. South of cuzco was collasuyu, which included lake titicaca, other parts of bolivia, and parts of chile and argentina. North of cuzco was chincasuyu, which included the northern highlands and ecuador.

Like other andean societies before them, the incas had no system of writing there are no written documents recording inca history before the spanish arrived in peru in 1532. There are, however, many documents that were written in the first half century after the spanish conquest. A few of the spanish conquistadores and missionaries recorded their own observations as well as the memories and oral traditions of the andean people they met. These people, for a variety of reasons, took on the role of chroniclers: they observed their new surroundings, interviewed people, and did other research to find out about inca history and then they wrote down what they learned. Because of the work of the spanish chroniclers, modern people know a lot more about the incas than they do about earlier andean cultures. While the inca empire flourished in prehistory, there was still a substantial inca population who remembered the days of the empire in the historical era. With few proven sources of accurate information, modern historians can present only a sketchy picture of the origins of the incas.

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No one knows exactly where the incas came from or when they arrived in the village of cuzco. However, in the southern andean region, where the incas emerged, the population remained divided, existing in small independent groups that were often at war with their neighbors. By the thirteenth century, the diverse populations in the cuzco valley were slowly uniting and becoming more powerful. The incas were a small group of farmers, apparently smaller and less powerful than some of the other groups in the area.

No one knows whether the first inca king, manco capac, is a historical or mythical imaginary figure. Whoever actually ruled the incas in the pre empire years managed to gain and keep power over the immediate homeland area by making alliances with neighboring groups. The incas probably did this through marriages and by making small military conquests near home. By the time viracocha took power as the eighth inca king probably in the late 1300s , the incas ruled over an area that extended about 25 miles 40.2 kilometers around cuzco. Experts believe that king tupac inca yupanqui ruled 1471 1493 , was responsible for the tremendous expansion of the inca empire, which stretched more than 2,0 miles 3,218 kilometers down the western side of south america, from the northern part of ecuador to central chile. He is said to have amassed an army of forty thousand men in the northern city of cajamarca.

Proceeding north, he conquered the city of tumebamba in present day ecuador and made it an administrative center of the inca empire. Moving south, tupac inca yupanqui conquered the chimor kingdom, which had a population of about one million people and a highly advanced culture. Continuing south, he fought battles with the peoples living near lake titicaca in present day bolivia. Then he headed into what is now chile, where he took control of the maule river area. After trying unsuccessfully to take lands in the tropical areas east of the andes, tupac inca yupanqui fell sick and returned to cuzco.

He continued some of the rebuilding work his father had begun in the city, and he oversaw the completion of sacsahuaman, a giant complex north of cuzco. As he grew old, tupac inca yupanqui turned over the command of the army to his son, huayna capac. Worn out from years of military campaigns, tupac inca yupanqui died in 1493, and huayna capac ascended the throne. Huayna capac continued the work of his father and grandfather, pushing deeper into present day chile and bolivia. Later he turned his attention north, where he spent about ten years conquering the quito kingdom present day ecuador.

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