A and four essay questions in section b, of which candidates were required to answer. Also, more attention was paid to the social aspects of the syllabus, with an attempt to integrate the social with the human biology. Expected answers were that it consisted of muscle fibres or specialized muscle cells, connective.

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from wikipedia socialization socialization is a term used by sociologists. It may provide the individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own society a society itself is formed through a plurality of shared norms, customs, values, traditions, social roles, symbols and languages. Socialization is thus â€˜the means by which social and cultural continuity are attainedâ€™.

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Socialization, however, is not a normative term: it describes a process which may or may not affect the reflexive agent. Many socio political theories postulate that socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviours that agents are not 'blank slates' predetermined by their environment. Scientific research provides strong evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and their hard wired biological makeup.

Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with their genotype to influence behavioural outcomes, whilst the linguistic theory of generative grammar demonstrates how something such as the capacity for learning changes throughout one's lifetime. Agency socialization is the primary means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning processes one can experience. Although cultural variability is manifest in the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups societies , the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level. This expression can only occur after an individual has been socialized by its parents, family, extended family and extended social networks. This reflexive process of both learning and teaching is the how cultural and social characteristics attain continuity. Montaigne and rousseau and he identifies a dictionary entry from 1828 that defines 'socialize' as 'to render social, to make fit for living in society' 1968: 20 1. However it was the response to a translation of a paper by georg simmel that the concept was incorporated into various branches of psychology and anthropology 1968: 31 52.

In the middle of the 20th century, socialization was a key idea in the dominant american functionalist tradition of sociology. Talcott parsons parsons and bales 1956 and a group of colleagues in the us developed a comprehensive theory of society that responded to the emergence of modernity in which the concept of socialization was a central component. One of their interests was to try to understand the relationship between the individual and society â€ a distinctive theme in us sociology since the end of the nineteenth century.

Ely chinoy, in a 1960s standard textbook on sociology, says that socialization serves two major functions: on the one hand, it prepares the individual for the roles he is to play, providing him with the necessary repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge. On the other hand, by communicating the contents of culture from one generation to the other, it provides for its persistence and continuity. Chinoy, 1961: 75 for many reasons â€ not least its excessive approval of modern american life as the model social system and its inability to see how gender, race and class divisions discriminated against individuals â€ parsonian functionalism faded in popularity in the 1970s. â€¦ it is no longer enough to focus on the malleability and passivity of the individual in the face of all powerful social influences. Without some idea about the individualâ€™s own activity in shaping his social experience our perspective of socialization becomes distorted. Graham white 1977: 5 , reacting to the functionalist notion of socialization english sociologist during the last quarter of the twentieth century the concept of â€˜socializationâ€™ has been much less central to debates in sociology that have shifted their focus from identifying the functions of institutions and systems to describing the cultural changes of postmodernity.

But the idea of socialization has lived on, particularly in debates about the family and education. The institutions of the family or the school are often blamed for their failure to socialize individuals who go on to transgress social norms. On the other hand, it is through a critique of functionalist ideas about socialization that there has been an increasing acceptance of a variety of family forms, of gender roles and an increasing tolerance of variations in the ways people express their social norms reveal the values behind socialization. Have noted the relationship between norms, values and roles during socialization. primary socialization primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.

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For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, stereotype threat a stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First developed by social psychologist claude steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of individuals who belong to negatively stereotyped groups. For example, stereotype threat can lower the intellectual performance of african americans taking the sat. Due to the stereotype that african americans are less intelligent than other groups. Since its introduction into the scientific literature in 19, stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology. Stereotype threat is often discussed as a potential contributing factor to long standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance.

However, stereotype threat may occur in any situation in which an individual has the potential of confirming a negative stereotype. Steele sought to understand why certain minority groups at the university were under performing compared to their peers. He rejected the idea that group differences were due to biology and instead focused on the possibility that stigma could be playing a role. Steele and his then graduate student, steven spencer, tested this hypothesis by examining men and women's performance in advanced math classes compared to advanced english classes. They found a larger gender gap in the math classes, which led them to conclude that stigma might lower academic performance. They tested this experimentally by asking male and female college students to complete a difficult math test. Some of the participants were told that men and women tend to perform similarly on that particular test while others were given no instructions.

The participants who received no instructions showed an expected gender gap in performance, such that women did worse on the test compared to men. In contrast, the participants who had been told that the test usually shows no gender differences displayed no such gender gap in performance. Although steele and spencer felt they had identified a new reason for group differences in performance, their findings still did not explain why stigma would impair performance and whether it could affect other groups aside from women. In 1991 steele accepted a professorship at stanford and continued his research on how stigma affects performance in collaboration with joshua aronson. Steele and aronson ran several experiments similar to the ones done at michigan but this time using african american college students as participants.

They also looked at what underlying mental processes may cause stigma to reduce intellectual performance. In their first experiment, steele and aronson demonstrated that african american students perform worse on an excerpt from the verbal portion of the graduate record examination test, as compared to european american college students. In a second experiment, they attempted to eliminate this gap by telling some participants that the test was not diagnostic of intelligence. This led to a significant reduction in the racial gap in performance on the test.