The value of human life essaysthe beliefs and views of modern society are hypocritical and unjust. Anscombe st andrews studies in philosophy and public affairs anscombe, mary geach, luke. Putting together, therefore, these conclusions, we find, that human life depends upon the general laws of matter and motion, and that tis no encroachment on the.

If to your ignou mcom 2nd year assignments 2013 thought it needs to be amended or modified you can apply for revision. The secondary sexual characteristics are traits that distinguish between the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system. These characteristics begin to appear during puberty as a result of sex hormones that are produced in the ovaries and testes.

The males hormones are called androgens the main one is called testosterone , and the females hormones are called oestrogens. These hormones are stimulated by the gonad stimulating hormones from the pituitary gland found at the base of the brain. The secondary sexual characteristics that appear in females are: breasts begin to enlarge pubic hair starts to appear hips grow wider than the shoulders the menarche first period and fatty tissue starts to appear in and around the breasts, shoulders and hips. The secondary sexual characteristics that appear in males are: penis, testes and scrotum begin to enlarge facial, body and pubic hair starts to grow voice deepens breaks due to larynx getting one third larger and their muscles grow and strengthen. 1 spermatogenesis is the process in which sperm is formed, while oogenesis is the process in which the egg cells, or ova, are formed. While both of these processes occur through meiosis, there are many differences between them.

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In spermatogenesis diploid cells known as spermatogonium, which are found in the seminiferous tubules of the male testes, eventually mature to become sperm. Through the process of meiotic cell division each diploid cell is produced into four haploid sperm cells, which contain 23 single chromosomes each. Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues throughout the rest of life and literally millions of sperm can be produced every day. Oogenesis takes place in the female's ovaries and like spermatogenesis haploid cells are produced from an original diploid cell, known as a primary oocyte, through meiosis.

The majority of the cytoplasm is placed into this egg and the other cells, known as polar bodies, do not develop and disintegrate or divide again. The polar bodies dispose of any unnecessary chromosomes while retaining most of the cytoplasm in the egg. A single egg cell is normally only produced once a month, from puberty through to menopause. There are two major differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis with the first being that, in oogenesis only one final ovum, or egg cell, is produced from each diploid cell in contrast to the four sperm that are generated from every spermatogonium.

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The second is that, there is an unequal division of the cytoplasm during meiotic division, which results in polar bodies that dispose of any unnecessary chromosomes. Another interesting difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis is that oogenesis is not completed until after fertilization occurs. 2 the cycle starts with menstruation, which is why it is known as the menstrual cycle. During menstruation the lining of the uterus breaks down and a small amount of blood passes out through the vagina. This cycle usually lasts about 28 days and is controlled by the interaction of various hormones. The events of the menstrual cycle can be separated into three stages: the follicular phase ovulatory phase and the luteal phase. The first stage is known as the follicular phase, this is where one or more follicles begin to develop into a mature female gamete.

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The follicle cells surround the developing egg cell oocyte , and produce hormones which trigger other responses. The second stage, the ovulatory phase, is when the oocyte is released from the ovary and passes down the fallopian tube towards the uterus. The third and final stage is the luteal phase, this is where the remaining follicle cells in the ovary continue to develop and form a structure called the corpus luteum, and as a result more hormones are produced. During the first phase of the menstrual cycle, the pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone fsh. Fsh triggers one or more of the follicle cells in the ovary to develop and as these cells grow, oestrogen is then secreted.

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The secretion of this oestrogen slows down further production of fsh and stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone lh. As the follicular stage progresses, the developing follicle enlarges and becomes a mature follicle and the oestrogen levels begin to increase rapidly. This triggers a further release of lh and also a sudden release of fsh for the final development of the follicle. This lh surge triggers ovulation, which is when the oocyte leaves the ovary and passes into the fallopian tube. The high concentration of lh that brings about ovulation has an effect on the follicle cells that remain in the ovary. These residual follicles are converted into the corpus luteum, which secretes oestrogen and a large amount of progestogen. The progestogen stimulates the mammary glands and uterus in anticipation of pregnancy, if the oocyte is not fertilised within 36 hours of this process, it dies.

After roughly 28 days, if there is a lack of progestogen the menstruation cycle will begin again. High concentrations of oestrogen and progestogen inhibit production of fsh and lh. Without fsh and lh the cells of the corpus luteum get smaller ndash and in turn less progestogen and oestrogen are secreted. Lower concentrations of oestrogen and progestogen, means that the fsh is no longer inhibited, and the cycle starts again. 3 human chorionic gonadotrophin hcg is a hormone that is produced in the placenta and is secreted early on in the pregnancy. Its role is to prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum which in turn, continues to secrete the hormones progestogen and oestrogen which prevents menstruation and helps maintain pregnancy once the foetus begins to develop. 4 there are many different methods of contraception, but the two main types are the barrier and hormonal methods.

Other types of contraception include: natural family planning methods such as only having sex at certain times of the month to prevent pregnancy sterilization, which is a permanent surgical procedure the intrauterine device iud and intrauterine system ius , also known as 'the coil', which is a small plastic and copper device that is fitted into the uterus. The barrier method physically prevents sperm from swimming into the uterus and fertilising the egg. The types of barrier method contraceptives are: the male condom the female condom the diaphragm or cap sponge and spermicides in the form of foam or gels. It's a thin sheath, usually made out of latex, which is rolled onto an erect penis before sexual contact.

The female condom femidom is a thin, soft polyurethane pouch, which is fitted inside the vagina before sex. It has an inner ring that goes into the upper part of the vagina, and an outer one, which should be visible. The diaphragm and cap thin, soft rubber devices which are fitted into the upper part of the vagina to cover the cervix. Caps are smaller than diaphragms, but both are available in several types and sizes.

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They need to be used with a spermicidal cream or pessary, and should be left in place for at least six hours after sex. A sponge is literally a small sponge which has been impregnated with a spermicidal gel or cream. It is moistened with water before use, and then inserted high into the vagina to cover the cervix. It needs to be left in place for at least six hours after sex, and can be left for up to 30 hours, although there is a risk of infection if left for longer than that. Spermicides are creams, gels, foam or pessaries that contain a chemical that kills sperm and thus stops sperm from travelling up into the cervix.

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Spermicides do not provide effective protection on their own, but are great when combined with other barrier methods of contraception, such as the male condom. There are three main types of hormonal contraceptive, these include: the contraceptive pill, the injectable hormonal contraceptive and the contraceptive implant. The combined pill contains both oestrogen and progestogen and stops the release of an egg every month ndash but doesn't stop the menstruation. It works by altering the mucous lining of the vagina to make it thicker so the sperm cannot get through, and is therefore unable to fertilize the egg.