In Writing a Persuasive Speech a Typical Structure Is to Begin By Writing About Text

Jonathan Friesen - Writing Coach

introduction

in answering questions at advanced level, you will have opportunities to interpret language data, which are included in the exam paper. You must prepare by practising with examples you find for yourself, or with those which your teacher provides.

speech and writing

the outward difference between speech and writing is a source of much confusion.

Mistaken or flat earth views about language appear when we apply to speech inappropriate prescriptive ideas about formal written language. However, it is equally mistaken to suppose that speech has no grammar or distinctive structures and forms � it has. Speech is historically prior to writing, and most people speak long before they are literate.

For centuries, in which most ordinary people were technically illiterate, spoken english enabled them to carry out all the business of their daily lives. In the 20th century the development of efficient and inexpensive recording technologies has made it possible for speech to be reliably recorded. In studying english, you should learn about the underlying grammar of all texts, spoken and written.

transcribing spoken data

you are not likely to have to do this in your exam � so long as the paper is written.

This seems odd � foreign language exams require you to listen to audio recordings. You are very likely, in your written exam, to face questions in which you are given transcripts of spoken data. If you know the conventions for recording these, then you can interpret the transcript. You will see these in your exam only if the question requires you to comment on the features of sound phonology which these symbols show. Similarly, there are symbolic ways to show suprasegmental features of language such as stress, pitch, intonation and tempo . Again, you are likely to see this kind of representation only if the question requires you to explain these features.

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suprasegmental means above the segments that is, above the level of structure in a sentence � they are not features of the grammar, but may help convey semantic information such as distinguishing a statement from a question, when the syntax is in a declarative form.

important concepts for describing speech

as you begin to explore features of spoken language, you should be aware of these concepts:
    thinking aloud deictics � making sure the listener knows what, where and to whom an utterance refers unambiguous use of pronouns such as it, this and that. The way in which people try to make conversations work is sometimes called a co operative principle. They should not say what they think is false, or make statements for which they lack evidence. Quantity � a contribution should be as informative as is required for the conversation to proceed. It is not clear how one can decide what quantity of information satisfies the maxim in a given case. Relevance � speakers' contributions should relate clearly to the purpose of the exchange.

    Manner � speakers' contributions should be perspicuous: clear, orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity. When someone says: i name this ship or i now pronounce you man and wife , the utterance creates a new social or psychological reality. Such utterances can be analysed using a threefold distinction: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.

      locutionary acts � these are simply the speech acts which have taken place.

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      il locutionary acts � these refer to the real actions which are performed by the utterance, where saying equals doing, as in betting, plighting one's troth, welcoming and warning. per locutionary acts � these refer to the effect of the utterance on the listener, who accepts the bet or pledge of marriage, is welcomed or warned.

    some linguists have attempted to classify illocutionary acts into a number of categories or types. Only certain people are qualified to declare war, baptize others or sentence convicted felons.

    And external circumstances must be suitable: will you shut the door? requires that the door be open, that the speaker has a reason for the request, and that the hearer is able to comply with it. It may be that the utterance is meant as a joke or sarcasm, in which case a different interpretation is in order.

    names and addresses

    some languages have different forms for you french tu/vous. These may originally have indicated number.vous and sie were and are used for plural forms, but now show different levels of formality, with tu and du being more familiar, vous and sie more polite. In english this was shown historically by the contrast between you formal/polite and thou/thee familiar.

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    The thou or t form survives in some dialects, while other familiar forms are youse liverpool and you all/y'all southern usa. It may also be a marker of status, with the v form used to superiors, the t form to equals or inferiors. The t form is found in shakespeare's plays, where it almost always shows the speaker's attitude to status and situation. It is also found in frozen language forms, such as the stylized speech of quakers or other non comformist groups, like the pennsylvania amish, in orders of service and prayers. Oddly, many modern speakers think that thou being archaic is more formal than you � when the reverse is the case! in english, we also express status and attitude through titles, first names and last names. Note that we abbreviate some of these in writing mrs. , but not in speaking missus . First names may be given names fred, susan but include epithets such as chief, guv, mate, man, pal.

    In general, use of these on their own suggests lack of deference oi, smith. but in some contexts public schools, the armed forces they are norms. If one speaker uses title and last name tln , and the other first name fn only, we infer difference in status. The social superior the fn speaker may invite the inferior to use fn in response: a: professor cringeworthy? b: please call me cuthbert. in schools teachers use fn or fnln when reprimanding or being sarcastic to pupils and receive t sir or tln miss smith in reply. miss is addressed to women teachers, even where the speaker knows them to be married. In english avoidance of address is often acceptable � thus where french speakers say bonsoir, monsieur.

    face and politeness strategies

    face as in lose face refers to a speaker's sense of linguistic and social identity. Positive politeness means being complimentary and gracious to the addressee but if this is overdone, the speaker may alienate the other party.