When and why are references given? in this section, the functions of references in academic writing are explained. As taylor 2002 states, references may be used as the ultimate authority upon which to base arguments. Alternatively, they may be a temporary authority whose validity you intend to challenge or they may be considered as obviously wrong. Herein lies the essence of comparison and contrast between the authors' findings and those of others.

Analytical Phd Thesis

167 the comparison and contrast brought up by taylor are key issues in referencing. In order to present their ideas and findings, writers have to discuss them in comparison or in contrast to previous research. A reference should always have a clear function and it must be relevant to the argument of the text.

referencing is a basis for academic writing

by acknowledging all sources that have been used in the preparation of a text, writers form part of the ongoing exchange of ideas and data that signifies the academic community.

In fact, as linguist ken hyland 2004 has argued, appropriate textual practices are crucial to the acceptance of claims p. By this he means that the way we write is essential for the understanding of the research that we aim to present in our writing: explicit reference to prior literature is a substantial indication of a text's dependence on contextual knowledge and thus a vital piece in the collaborative construction of new knowledge between writers and readers. The embedding of arguments in networks of references not only suggests an appropriate disciplinary orientation, but reminds us that statements are invariably a response to previous statements and are themselves available for further statements by others. 21 in order for a text to function as such a response to previous statements and to be available for further statements by others, p. 21 it must follow the reference conventions of its discipline and of the type of text. This is one reason why supervisors pay so much attention to formal aspects of academic essay writing.

By teaching their students how a scholarly text is structured and in what manner references are given, supervisors guide them into the research community of their field.

when and why are references given?

references are given whenever a source, which supplies some kind of fact or evidence, is used. In most academic texts, references have at least one of the following, sometimes overlapping, functions:

to acknowledge previous research in the field

writers need to show their awareness of previous and related research within the field. In some disciplines, essays and research papers have a designated part for previous research, whereas such acknowledgements may be given anywhere in the text in other disciplines.

The examples below show how authors acknowledge previous research in their fields. By referring to previous, relevant, studies, writers present opposing views within the field while giving background information on the topic. The following extract, which comes from the journal of social psychology. In the opening of their article, the authors wish to present two opposing views within their research field by making brief references to previous key studies: in pioneer research on punctuality, dudycha found that men tended to be more punctual than women dudycha, 1937 , but that more women than men mentioned consideration for others as important in the context of punctuality dudycha, 1938. Consistency in punctuality across different situations was not very high and appeared to depend on the similarity between situations dudycha, 1939.

In contrast, richard and slane's 1990 findings led them to conclude that punctuality appears to be a persistent personality characteristic that is measurable by subjective or objective methods p. 377 comment: the reference style used here is an author date system, which gives the year of publication in parenthesis, thereby automatically informing the reader about the time span between the two opposing views that are presented. Note too, that the first researcher referred to dudycha is described as a pioneer, thereby establishing his early importance in the field. The later study by richard and slane is distinguished from that of dudycha by the phrase in contrast. The extract below comes from an article on evolutionary responses to anthropogenic changes to ecosystems. It comes from a journal titled molecular ecology. by referring to previous research in the field, the authors provide a factual background to their own discussion: humanity already captures and uses more than half of the available fresh water on a global basis postel et al.

1996 , largely through diversions and impoundments to rivers vitousek et al. 1997. Major dams typically remain in place for decades to centuries, producing long lasting changes to natural ecosystems. These effects are pervasive: approximately 40 0 'large' gt 15 m tall dams are in place worldwide icold 1998 , and the vast majority of major rivers are impounded mccully 2001. These impoundments have a particularly dramatic effect on the distribution, abundance, and life histories of migratory aquatic species merritt amp wohl 2002.

84 85 comment: here, too, an author date reference style has been used. The sources referred to are placed in chronological order, thereby providing a brief overview of the progress within the research field.

to position new research in relation to previous publications

a central aim of research is to expand knowledge. In order to show what is new, scholarly writers need to position their work in relation to previous research in the field. This positioning is carried out in different ways, depending on discipline and text type. A common method is to present previous research and then present new facts that either expand the knowledge presented by earlier research, or, indeed, contradict it. In order to show what is new in their essay or article, writers thus need to acknowledge what has previously been published within the field.

Columbia University Department of Economics Discussion Paper Series

The extract below comes from the historical journal and deals with women teachers in nineteenth century england: susan skedd has suggested that it seems paradoxical that boarding schools for girls were multiplying during the georgian period, when evangelical ideals of domestic femininity were gaining currency. 17 however, these ideals were not necessarily, as skedd assumes, an obstacle to the expansion of schooling for girls. On the contrary, especially in the early years of the century, ideas about the religious mission of women strengthened the conviction of teachers like jane gardiner that their work was important and necessary. In order to study as preparation for her task of sending forth solidly educated christian women. 18 17 susan skedd, women teachers and the expansion of girls' schooling in england, c.